Introduction
Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The accurate assessment of risk factors is essential for early prevention and management. Traditionally, low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) has been the primary biomarker to evaluate ASCVD risk. However, newer evidence indicates that non-high-density-lipoprotein (non-HDL) cholesterol and apolipoprotein B (apoB) may provide more reliable risk assessment. Non-HDL cholesterol measures all atherogenic cholesterol fractions, including LDL, very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL), and lipoprotein(a). Apolipoprotein B represents the total number of atherogenic lipoprotein particles because each atherogenic particle contains one apoB molecule.
Despite this knowledge, it is less clear whether non-HDL cholesterol or apoB is superior or if they provide complementary information about ASCVD risk.
Study Objectives
This study was designed to compare non-HDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B in a large population cohort to determine whether either marker offers additional predictive value beyond the other regarding the risk of myocardial infarction (MI) and broader ASCVD outcomes.
Methodology
The study analyzed data from the Copenhagen General Population Study, which enrolled nearly 95,000 Danish men and women between 2003 and 2015. Participants were free of lipid-lowering medication at baseline, with measurements taken for both non-HDL cholesterol and apoB.
The median follow-up period was over 13 years, providing a robust longitudinal dataset. The researchers used Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for multiple confounders, including age (used as the underlying time scale), sex, and other cardiovascular risk factors. They assessed continuous lipid measures and categorized participants based on concordance or discordance between non-HDL cholesterol and apoB levels into four groups:
- Concordant low: Both markers below median values.
- Discordant high apoB: Non-HDL cholesterol below median, apoB above median.
- Discordant high non-HDL cholesterol: Non-HDL cholesterol above median, apoB below median.
- Concordant high: Both markers above median values.
Key Findings
The study found that higher levels of non-HDL cholesterol or apoB individually were each associated with a significantly increased risk of ASCVD and MI. Specifically, a one standard deviation (SD) increase in non-HDL cholesterol (39 mg/dL) was linked to a 16% higher hazard for ASCVD events, while a one SD increase in apoB (30 mg/dL) corresponded to a 14% increase.
When models were adjusted for the alternate marker (i.e., apoB adjusted for non-HDL cholesterol and vice versa), the strength of the associations diminished but remained statistically significant, indicating overlapping but not identical predictive information.
Regarding the concordance/discordance categories, compared with participants with concordantly low levels, those with discordantly raised apoB had a 32% higher risk of MI, while those with discordantly raised non-HDL cholesterol had a 30% increased risk. Participants with concordantly high levels experienced the highest risk—69% greater risk for MI and 36% increased risk for overall ASCVD events.
Interpretation and Clinical Implications
The findings demonstrate that both non-HDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B are valuable markers of atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk, each contributing unique information. This supports clinical guidelines emphasizing the importance of assessing both the cholesterol content and particle number of atherogenic lipoproteins for comprehensive risk estimation.
Since apoB directly quantifies the number of atherogenic particles whereas non-HDL cholesterol measures the total cholesterol within these particles, discordance occurs when the cholesterol content per particle varies. Recognizing this discordance can be clinically important because patients with similar cholesterol levels could have different particle numbers, affecting their ASCVD risk.
For clinicians, measuring non-HDL cholesterol is practical as it requires no fasting and is routinely available, making it a useful surrogate marker. However, apoB measurement can refine risk assessment, especially when discordance is suspected or in individuals with hypertriglyceridemia or metabolic syndrome where cholesterol content per particle fluctuates.
Treatment and Prevention Strategies
Both biomarkers can be used to tailor lipid-lowering treatment strategies. Statins remain the foundation of ASCVD risk reduction by lowering LDL cholesterol and non-HDL cholesterol. Newer therapies targeting apoB-containing lipoproteins, such as PCSK9 inhibitors and ezetimibe, further reduce particle numbers and cholesterol content, improving outcomes in high-risk individuals.
Clinicians should consider integrating apoB measurement especially in patients with residual risk despite standard therapy or in primary prevention to identify those who may benefit from earlier or more intensive treatment.
Limitations and Future Directions
This cohort study involved primarily Danish individuals of European descent; therefore, these findings should be validated in more ethnically diverse populations. Also, while the study excluded participants on lipid-lowering medication at baseline, changes in treatment during follow-up were not detailed.
Future research should explore how integrating apoB and non-HDL cholesterol into risk calculators affects clinical decision-making and outcomes. Additionally, the cost-effectiveness and accessibility of widespread apoB testing in routine care warrant evaluation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this extensive population study confirms that both non-HDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B are independently and jointly important in assessing ASCVD risk. Both cholesterol content within lipoproteins and the atherogenic particle number are critical for accurate cardiovascular risk stratification and guiding preventive strategies.